Central Asias Water Resources: Country Comparison

Central Asias Water Resources: Country Comparison Chapter 3 Population of Central Asia: Central Asia is the land of many languages, ethnic groups, religions, and tribes. In 2000, an estimated 55.9 million people lived in Central Asia. Today there are about 65.7 million (ICG, 2014). The below table show the population of Central Asia from 1992 to 2013 Total population of Central Asia (1000 inhab) Source: FAO The table shows the population of central Asian countries from 1992 to 2013. According to this table in 1992 the population of Kazakhstan is 16070, which start decreasing from that year. In 1997, the population of Kazakhstan decreased to 15086 and in 2002 it decreased to the level of 146623. This trends show that after independence from former Soviet Union, the population of Kazakhstan start declining; this is due to the migration of Russian and other Soviet Union member’s countries ethnic people from Kazakhstan. This factor is and push factor for growing population. But after the year 2002, it start growing, in 2007, it became 15396, 16271 in 2012 and 16441 in 2013. Kazakhstan is the 9th largest country in the world[1], its density of population is very low and lowest among Central Asian republics. Kyrgyzstan is a mountainous country, but, the population of Kyrgyzstan grows at a fast rate. In 1992, the population of Kyrgyzstan is 4476, in 2007 it crossed the 5 million mark an d in 2012 it became over 5.5 million and grows day by day. This put number of impact on the development of the country, availability of natural resources, water recourses and it became difficult for government to providing basic amenities to the people. Tajikistan is the smallest country from all five republics of central Asia. It is also one of the poorest republics in the world. Tajikistan caught in civil war just after the independence, in this civil war in five years over 50,000 killed and over 10% population of the country runaway to neighboring countries.[2] But beside all of this the population of Tajikistan is grow at a very rapid rate. In 1992, the population of Tajikistan is 5523 which became 6204 in 2002 and crossed 7 million marks in 2007 and 8 million mark in 2012. In 2013, the population of Tajikistan became 8208 and the population in Tajikistan grows very fast in all central Asian republics. Turkmenistan is a very low density country; due to most of the area of the co untry is desert. So, population in Turkmenistan is very low. In 1992, the population of Turkmenistan is 3882, which became 4600 in 2002 and crossed 5 million marks in 2012. In 2013, it became 5240. Total Renewal water resource per capita (actual) (m3/inhab/yr) Source: FAO The above table shows that total water resources per capita (actual) in all central Asian countries decreasing year by year. In Kazakhstan per capita water resources that was 7351 m3 in 2002, decreased to 6607 m3 in 2012 and 6539 m3 in 2014. In Kyrgyzstan the renewal water resources per capita are decreased from 5277 m3 in 1992 to 4721 m3 in 2002, 4315 m3 in 2012 and 4257 m3 in the year of 2014.In Tajikistan, also the trends of declining of water per capita. In 1992 the per capita renewal water recourses availability was 3967 m3 that was declining to 2669 m3 in 2014. In the Turkmenistan the same trend of decreasing renewal water per capita continues. In 1992, the availability of renewal water resources per capita is 6381 m3 that was decline to 4727 m3 in 2014. When we talk about Uzbekistan the situation is worst. Over half of population of whole central Asian region is lived in Uzbekistan and also increased rapidly. So, the situation becomes critical day by day. The availability of p er capita renewal water resources, that was 2269 m3 in 1992 declined to 1832 m3 in 2007 and 1689 m3 in 2014. Water withdrawal by sectors: -The water withdrawals means withdrawn of the gross quantity of water by different sectors annually for given proposes (FAO, 2012). There are three sectors of water withdrawal these sectors are: agriculture, municipalities, and industry. In the agriculture sector included irrigation, aquaculture, watering and livestock cleaning, the municipalities sector included use of water in houses, villages, towns and cities by population for their domestic proposes. The industrial sector includes the water used in thermal plants for cooling, for dying in leather industry etc. the data related to water withdrawal is taken from the national statics of the countries for most countries, but there is uncertainty in methods that are used for obtaining data (FAO, 2005). Water withdrawal by sectors in Kazakhstan Source: FAO The above table shows that the withdrawal by sector in Kazakhstan changed rapidly from agriculture sector to other sector like industrial and municipal. In 1995, agriculture sector withdrawal over 80% of the country. But in 2002, the situation is changed, the share of water withdrawal by agriculture sector decline from 81% to 75% and the share of industrial sector increased from 1.73% to 4.21%. The share of Municipal sector also changed from 16.86 to 20.66 in 2002. In 2007, the share of agriculture again decline, but industrial sector’s share remains shame as 2002. The big change comes in share of municipal sector, which’s share is increased very rapidly after 2002. Its share is increased from 20.66% in 2002 to 28.18% in 2007 and 29.63% in 2010. These trends will continue in country because of high growth in urbanization and industrial sector. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Kyrgyzstan Source: FAO When we see the table of water withdrawal by sector in Kyrgyzstan then we find out that there is very little changes in water withdrawal by sector. The share of agriculture is biggest from all the sectors in 1994, that was over 94% in 1994 and only 1% declined in its share in 2006. The other two sector’s share is almost 3% each 1994 that remained 3% also in 2006. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Tajikistan Source: FAO The water withdrawal in Tajikistan is similar with Kyrgyzstan. Agriculture is the main sector, withdrawal over 90% water of the country. There are many reasons for this because agriculture is the main sector of the economy of the country and biggest employment provider to the people, and industrial sector is not developed in the country because of mineral recourses and energy recourses and due to the increase in population and urbanization the share of municipal sector is increased very at a very slow rate. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Turkmenistan Source: FAO In Turkmenistan agriculture is the main stay of the employment of the people and also the biggest water withdrawal sector. Its share in 1994 is over 97% in total water withdrawal by the all the sectors of the country, that changed very slowly from other sector like industrial sector and municipal sector. The share of industrial sector was almost half percent in 1994, that increased 1.08% in 2000 and almost two and half percent in 2004 and increased year by year but at a very slow rate. The share of municipal sector increased but at a very slow rate. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Uzbekistan Source: FAO In Uzbekistan the agriculture sector remains the biggest water consumer from the Soviet time. It is also one of the biggest cotton producers in the world and cotton crop is the biggest water consumer of the country. Agriculture is the main stay of the people of the country. In 1994, agriculture sector withdrawal over 93% of the total water withdrawal by the country. The industrial sector withdrawal almost 2% and municipal sector 4% of water in the year 1994. In 2001, the agriculture sector withdrawal 90% , industrial sector almost 4% and municipal sector withdrawal almost five and half percent of water. In these years, the share of agriculture is decline and the share of others sector increased. In 2005, the share of agriculture sector remains same but the share of industrial sector declined almost 1%. On the other hand the share of municipal sector increased from five and half to over 7%. This is due to the increase in population and urbanization. Total Renewal water resource per capita (actual) (m3/inhab/yr) Source: FAO The above table shows that total water resources per capita (actual) in all central Asian countries decreasing year by year. In Kazakhstan per capita water resources that was 7351 m3 in 2002, decreased to 6607 m3 in 2012 and 6539 m3 in 2014. In Kyrgyzstan the renewal water resources per capita are decreased from 5277m3 in 1992 to 4721m3 in 2002, 4315 m3 in 2012 and 4257 in the year of 2014.In Tajikistan, also the trends of declining of water per capita. In 1992 the per capita renewal water recourses availability was 3967m3 that was declining to 2669 m3 in 2014. In the Turkmenistan the same trend of decreasing renewal water per capita continues. In 1992, the availability of renewal water resources per capita is 6381m3 that was decline to 4727 m3 in 2014. When we talk about Uzbekistan the situation is worst. Over half of population of whole central Asian region is lived in Uzbekistan and also increased rapidly. So, the situation becomes critical day by day. The availability of per capi ta renewal water resources, that was 2269 m3 in 1992 declined to 1832 m3 in 2007 and 1689 m3 in 2014. Dams in Central Asia Source: FAO The water system in central Asia region is mange by large numbers of canals, dams and reservoirs etc. there is large trap of canals, which was made in the times of Former Soviet Union all over central Asia, many dams like world’s tallest dam Nurek dam etc and many big reservoir like Andijan, Toktogul, Tyuyamunym and Kairakkum etc are in central Asia to manage water resources of the region (UNECE, 2007). The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), classified the dams into two categories according to their height, the first category include the dams with the height of 15 meters or above, second category include the dams of between the height of 5 to 15 meters and the storage capacity is more than 3 million m3,[3]. There are over 1200 dams in central Asia region and 110 dams are large dams from these dams. Many of them have inter-state significance because many of them located on the Transboundary rivers like Amu Darya River, Syr Darya River etc. (UNECE, 2007). The total capacity of dams in central Asian countries is 176.8 km3. From which, 95.5 km3 only in Kazakhstan, that is 54% of the total dam’s capacity of the region. Kyrgyzstan accounts 13% dams of the region with the capacity of 23.5 km3. Kambarta and Toktogul are major dams in Kyrgyzstan. There are 17% dams’ of central Asia is in Tajikistan, with the capability of 29.5 km3. Nurek Dam with the height of 300 meters, is world’s tallest dam is located in Tajikistan on Vakhsh River.[4]. Sangtuda-1 and 2 are also very important dams in Tajikistan and country also proposed a dam named Rogan dam on Naryn River, which become world’s highest dam after the completion of construction[5]. Uzbekistan with the capacity of 22.2 km3 is account 13% of the total dams of the region and with the capacity of 6.2 km3 Turkmenistan accounts only 3% dams of the region [1] http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_area.htm [2] http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16201032 [3] https://www.adaptation-fund.org/sites/default/files/ilovepdf.com-7.pdf [4] http://www.briskinfo.com/extreme/tallest-dam-in-world-nurek-dam.html [5] http://www.briskinfo.com/extreme/tallest-dam-in-world-nurek-dam.html Germanys Political System | Summary Germanys Political System | Summary German Political System Chandra Chapagai Introduction Political system is basically a structure to decide, govern, implement, and authorize policies and procedures to the citizens of a country. Each country has their own political system developed or designed under which policies, procedures, and legislations to run the country and the citizens. Each nation has some sort of uniqueness in formation of the political system and how to form policies, procedures, and govern the nation. Unlike US, Germany has its own political system to run the country. Germany is a federal parliamentary system country. It has different components of political system and they are constitution, the executive, legislature, judiciary, different states, composed of different political parties. Like all other political system, parliamentary system also has its own strengths and weaknesses. Constitution The basic law of the land in Germany is the constitution. The constitution of Federal Republic of Germany was passed after World War II in 1949. Germany is a social Democratic country. In the constitution, the basic rights of German citizens are guaranteed. All federal and state authorities are bound by the constitution. They cannot do anything that is against what is written in the constitution. It was the constitution that has established democratic parliamentary system in Germany. After the constitution was written it helped to separate powers of German into executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. This constitution helps all these branches to maintain checks and balances to run the country. The Executive The executive branch basically consists of the head of the state, and head of the government. The head of the state is the president and this president is mostly ceremonial but the ceremonial president is also responsible in representing the state, states’ existence, and their legitimate causes, and overall unity of the states in the country. The president also has the power to practice politics and implement laws and order in the country when there are crisis in the parliament and their cabinet members, and is also responsible to handle international issues, sign treaties in the situation when the parliamentary system is in unstable state, and these are all written in the constitution. The president is elected by the legislative team members. The president is elected for two five year terms for maximum time frame. The head of the government is the federal chancellor. In Germany, the federal chancellor is responsible person to run the government and the overall country polices and politics. The chancellor of the federal republic of Germany is responsible for the parliament of the country. It is the responsibility of the chancellor to select the members of the cabinet for the government. Legislature Legislature is another branch of the federal parliamentarian government of Germany. Legislature assembly is divided into two champers and they are Bundestag, and Bundesrat and its bicameral system. The Bundestag and Bundesrat are lower house and upper house of German political system. The Bundestag members are elected for four year terms in the government. Bundestag will have more than 598 members of representations. Current lower house of chamber has 622 members. It is required by the party to have at least five percent of the national vote in the Bundestag to have the seats. Upper house of the German parliament is called Bundesrat. Bundesrat is a representation from all other states in the country. They are appointed by the state cabinets and can remove them any time if they want to. States selects the representatives to serve in the Bundesrat. The number of house members in Bundesrat is smaller than Bundestag. The lower house of the parliament has the power and authority to veto state level legislation and that will ultimately affect the governing power on the state level. Judiciary The judiciary system of federal republic of Germany is responsible to interpret, explain, and apply the law to the country and other states. German judiciary system practices civil law. The judiciary system of German has three court system and they are ordinary courts, specialized courts, and federal constitutional courts. Ordinary courts basically are responsible to dealing with criminal and civil cases. The federal court of justice of Germany is the highest ordinary court in the country. It is also the highest court of appeals that most of the cases go there for the highest appeals to be heard by the federal judges. Specialized court systems in Germany deals with issues that are related to administration, labor laws, social laws, budget and financial laws, and the patent laws. Any cases related to these issues are directed to the specialized courts in Germany. The highest federal Germany court is called as the constitutional courts and this court focuses on judiciary system and any constitutional issues. If there are any issues related to the constitution of the federal government, the Federal Constitutional court will be involved. The States Germany is divided into sixteen states. It is also called Landers. The government of Germany has federal constitution, all the sovereignty are given to the state and they manage and govern the state level affairs abide by the federal constitution. Since the population on these states are not same and can vary therefore, the size and territory of these states also vary. Each state has its own capital and has their own local and regional government to govern the people of the state. Political parties In democratic countries there will be political parties to run for the government. In the federal parliament government of Germany there are two major political parties and they are Center-Right and Center-Left. The Center-Right has two other parties and they are Christian Democratic Union, and Christian Social Union. These two parties operate differently and they operate thought the country. The Centre-Left Party is the Social Democratic Party. There are other parties as well and they are named as The Left Party, and the German Green Party. The current political party in the government now is Christian Democratic Union (CDU). Angela Merkel is the present head of the government of Federal Republic of Germany. Currently Joachim Gauck is serving as the head of the states in Germany. Strengths and Weakness of Parliament System Any political system has strengths and weaknesses. Political system in federal parliamentary system also has strengths and weakness. One advantage of parliamentary political system is that the executive branch is dependent on Bundestag and Bundesrat and its easy and fast to pass the legislation that was proposed. Strength is that the executive power is divided into states and is not fully concentrated to the head of the federal government. The most significant strength I like is based on the series of debates, it can change the power without election and then allow election to be held at any time, so there is flexibility if need be. One weakness of the parliamentary system is that the head of the government, the chancellor is not directly elected. Also, there is no any group or body that they oppose the legislation that is passed by the parliament. Executive branch and legislative branches are closely connected and the checks and balances between them are poor. There are possibilities of having informal constitutions Sometimes reserve powers are used which are not democratic and can cause crisis in the constitution. It is also possible that the parliamentary system can develop political authority from the executive branch. Conclusion The political system of Republic of Germany is very interesting. The political system of Germany is fairly decentralized system in which the system is categorized into executive, legislative, judiciary, and cabinets. In this system, the people will elect legislation, the legislation body elect executive, and the executive body produces public policy. There are both good side and bad side of parliamentary political system. The judiciary system of German is called the basic law of the land. There are different political parties in the Republic of Germany and all can participate in the political process and involve in the election processes. In Germany, chancellor is the head of the government, and the president is the head of the sixteen states. References Caramani, D. (2011). Comparative politics (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. German political system. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2015, from http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/Germanpoliticalsystem.html Neil, P. (2007). States. In Essentials of comparative politics (2nd ed.). New York, N.Y.: W.W. Norton .